top of page
Search

Highlands and Andes: A Shared Pact for Carbon, Water, and Justice

Roberto F. Salazar-Córdova

Hexagon Group Lat-Am|UK-GLobal ADN@+


This article is based in research over an old version of Sierra|ANDES project (see annex).
This article is based in research over an old version of Sierra|ANDES project (see annex).

Moral Sentiments and Wise Upbringing: Scotland & THE Andes


In 1759, Adam Smith published The Theory of Moral Sentiments, a book that would lay the ethical foundation of what later became modern economics. For Smith, human beings are not driven solely by self-interest. They are also guided by sympathy, the natural capacity to feel with others and to imagine oneself in another’s situation. This sympathy generates the social bonds that make cooperation possible. Beyond market efficiency, Smith argued, the true wealth of nations depends on the moral sentiments that sustain trust, reciprocity, and responsibility.

Centuries before, in the Ecuadorian Andes, the Kayambi People articulated a parallel vision in their official framework Kintiku Yachay —the System of Integral Development and Wise Upbringing for Community Life—. Here, the foundation of rights and development is not the abstract market but the concrete practices of community upbringing: raising children within the family, the chakra (traditional agroecosystem), and the minga (collective labor). Just as Smith placed sympathy and the “impartial spectator” at the heart of social order, the Kayambi place crianza sabia—wise upbringing—at the center of their institutions.

Both Smith and the Kayambi reject the notion that prosperity can be separated from ethics. For Smith, the economy cannot function without a moral compass; for the Kayambi, development collapses if it is detached from cultural values, reciprocity, and collective responsibility. The Scottish Enlightenment and the Andean Sumak Kawsay thus converge in one principle: there is no sustainability without ethics for PEACE.


Making PEACE with this Article


This philosophical parallel forms the linchpin of a broader proposal: a five-year, ~US$200 million Sierra|ANDES programme, grounded in the Kintiku Yachay and aligned with Scotland’s peatland investments and liberal traditions. It integrates ecological restoration, social welfare, and community institutions—all traceable and measurable, in service to justice.


1. The base: Two mirror landscapes


In the Ecuadorian Andes, the Kayambi páramo extends across 20,000 hectares beneath Nevado Cayambe, the only snow-capped mountain cut by the Equator. These high-Andean peatlands regulate water for Quito and Cayambe, while storing vast amounts of organic carbon in soils.

In Scotland, the Highlands are likewise defined by their peatlands, which remain Europe’s largest terrestrial carbon reserve, holding an estimated 1.7 GtC (~6.2 GtCO₂e) (NatureScot, 2025). Both landscapes are sacred, cultural, and strategic. Both are threatened by degradation, poverty, and historical trauma: the Highland Clearances dislocated clans, while the Kayambis face externalities from Ecuador's war against narcotics-driven violence and fiscal collapse.


ree

2. Evidence of carbon stocks and risk of loss


Recent soil sampling in Kayambi territory confirmed average organic horizons of 83.95 cm, corresponding to ~250 tC/ha (~917 tCO₂e/ha) and a total of 18 MtCO₂e across 20,000 ha (Sierra|ANDES, 2024). Comparative studies in Antisana and Cayambe-Coca show far higher averages of 1,282 tC/ha (~4,705 tCO₂e/ha), raising potential stocks to 94 MtCO₂e (Hribljan et al., 2016).

The risk is acute. Applying exponential loss dynamics, Kayambi could forfeit 67% of its stock in five years, equivalent to 12 MtCO₂e under conservative assumptions or 63 MtCO₂e under literature-based densities (Puyravaud, 2003). In Scotland, degradation accounts for ~5.7 MtCO₂e annually, but at slower, long-term rates (NatureScot, 2025).

What Scotland has lost over centuries, Ecuador risks losing within a decade.


3. Restoration costs and carbon price benchmarks


In Scotland, the government has committed £250 million through 2030 to restore degraded peatlands. Average restoration costs range from £955 to £1,878 per hectare, and verified carbon units under the Peatland Code trade at £24–27/tCO₂e (~US$30–35) (SEFARI, 2020; Glenk et al., 2025).

In Kayambi, applying the same standards would require US$26–45 million in capital expenditures and US$8–12 million in operational and monitoring costs over five years (Sierra|ANDES, 2024). At UK market prices, revenues would generate US$9–13 million annually, not enough to cover costs, much less the social risks.


4. The real cost of Year 1: social stabilization during war


Unlike Scotland, Ecuador faces an immediate narcotics war and fiscal paralysis that prevents the state from paying its milk programme. This leaves 2,500 Kayambi families without income, exposed to bankruptcy and violence.

For this reason, the Year 1 cost of Sierra|ANDES is US$40 million:

  • US$20 million in revolving funds to guarantee milk payments, preventing hunger and chronic child stunting.

  • US$20 million in productive credits (~US$8,000 per family) to enable sustainable livestock reconversion and páramo restoration, repayable in three years from Year 2.

This design prevents collapse, stabilises families, and protects the páramo from destructive uses such as uncontrolled cattle, potato, or flower expansion.


5. Years 2–5: structural investment for peace and development


From Year 2 onwards, the programme invests US$40 million annually into a broader agenda, aligned with the 17 Sustainable Development Goals:

  • Clean water and sanitation: universal potable water access in Kayambi communities.

  • Affordable and clean energy: decentralised renewable micro-grids.

  • Digital infrastructure: community Internet, telemedicine, and e-learning.

  • Education and technical training: schools, scholarships, and capacity-building for productive transition and tourism.

  • Nutrition and health: targeted reduction of chronic child stunting (DCI) through milk, health, and clean water.

  • Peace, justice, and institutions: strengthening indigenous justice and community security against narco violence.

  • Decent work and tourism: investment in infrastructure and cultural heritage circuits highlighting Cayambe and Kayambi identity.

Over five years, this totals US$200 million, mirroring Scotland’s commitment but with broader social dimensions.


6. The financing model: stacking flows for climate equity


Sierra|ANDES integrates multiple revenue streams to secure the ≥US$40 million annual threshold:

  1. Carbon credits (UK reference prices, US$30–35/t): US$9–13 M/year.

  2. Social Cost of Carbon (US EPA, ~US$190/t): partial recognition yields US$15–20 M/year (EPA, 2023).

  3. Payments for water services: scaling Quito’s FONAG model to US$8–12 M/year (FONAG, 2022).

  4. Social impact bonds for DCI: US$5–8 M/year linked to measurable reductions in child stunting.

This blended finance model ensures financial viability and connects climate action to water security, education, and peacebuilding.


7. Highlands ↔ Andes: towards a covenant


Both territories embody histories of dispossession and resilience. In the Highlands, the Clearances dismantled clans; in Kayambi, families now face displacement by illicit economies and a failing state. Restoration is therefore not only technical, but profoundly social and spiritual.

A Highlands–Andes partnership would:

  • Transfer Scottish restoration and monitoring standards to Kayambi.

  • Integrate Kayambi tokens and credits into UK carbon markets at fair prices.

  • Carry to the world a joint story of sacred bogs and sacred mountains, carbon, water, and children.


8. Conclusion: climate equity as investment in peace


Scotland’s £250 million peatland investment demonstrates that restoration is a public good worthy of national commitment. Ecuador’s Kayambi deserves the same recognition. Protecting 20,000 ha is not only about safeguarding 12–63 MtCO₂e at risk, but also about ensuring water for Quito, nutrition for indigenous children, and stability in a fragile region.

Highlands and Andes are mirror landscapes. The time has come for them to walk together, proving that climate markets can only be just when they are inseparable from social justice.


In sum, if Scotland’s legacy of Smith’s moral liberalism birthed modern economics, today the Kayambi propose a complementary model for the Andes —one that merges markets with moral ecology, markets with community—. The proposed Highlands–Andes Pact would therefore not just restore páramos, but honor a shared philosophy: freedom and sustainability rooted in mutual care.

References


  • EPA. (2023). Social Cost of Carbon for Regulatory Impact Analysis. United States Environmental Protection Agency.

  • FONAG. (2022). Informe de resultados 2021–2022. Fondo para la Protección del Agua, Quito.

  • Glenk, K., McBride, A., Urban, D., et al. (2025). Understanding peatland restoration costs and contractor capacity. DOI:10.7488/era/5570.

  • Hribljan, J. A., Suárez, E., Heckman, K. A., Lilleskov, E. A., & Chimner, R. A. (2016). Peatland carbon stocks and accumulation rates in the Ecuadorian páramo. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 24(2), 113–127.

  • NatureScot. (2025). Bogging Brilliant: The power of peatland restoration. Scottish Government.

  • Puyravaud, J.-P. (2003). Standardizing the calculation of the annual rate of deforestation. Forest Ecology and Management, 177(1–3), 593–596. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(02)00335-3

  • SEFARI. (2020). The costs of peatland restoration — March 2021 update. Scotland’s Rural College.

  • Sierra|ANDES. (2024). Informe técnico muestreo de suelo de páramo en territorio del Pueblo Kayambi. Quito: Confederación del Pueblo Kayambi.

  • Sierra|ANDES. (2024). PDD00 Proyecto Sierra|ANDES / Token URKU. Quito: Red Santa Cruz de Inversión de Impacto.



Annex: an old version...


1. Two landscapes, one struggle


In Ecuador, the Kayambi páramo stretches over 20,000 hectares beneath Nevado Cayambe, the only snow-capped peak cut by the Equator. These high-Andean peatlands regulate water for Quito and Cayambe, while storing millions of tonnes of carbon in organic soils.

In Scotland, the Highlands are likewise defined by their peatlands: vast mosses and bogs that have sustained communities for centuries and now hold ~6.2 GtCO₂e (NatureScot, 2025). Both landscapes are sacred, cultural, and strategic —and both are threatened.


2. Carbon stocks and risks


  • Kayambi (Ecuador): Conservative estimates indicate ~250 tC/ha (~917 tCO₂e/ha), yielding 18 MtCO₂e stored across 20,000 ha. More detailed measurements in Antisana and Cayambe-Coca report averages of 1,282 tC/ha (~4,705 tCO₂e/ha), i.e. 94 MtCO₂e (Hribljan et al., 2016).

  • Scotland: National inventories confirm 1.8 million ha of peatland with a combined carbon stock of ~1.7 GtC (~6.24 GtCO₂e). Yet ~80% is degraded, emitting ~5.7 MtCO₂e annually (NatureScot, 2025).

For Kayambi, an exponential 20% annual degradation rate implies losing ~67% of the stock within five years (~12 MtCO₂e under conservative density, ~63 MtCO₂e under literature-based density). The urgency is brutal: what Scotland lost over centuries, Ecuador could lose in a decade.


3. Restoration costs and standards


Scotland has invested £250 million to 2030 through Peatland ACTION, setting costs at £955–£1,878 per hectare (SEFARI, 2020; Glenk et al., 2025). Applying these standards to Kayambi would imply a CAPEX of US$26–45 million to restore 20,000 ha over five years, plus OPEX and monitoring (~US$8–12 million).

Such investment is not abstract. Restoration halts drainage, re-wets soils, and prevents emissions of 15–19.3 tCO₂e/ha/year, avoiding 0.3–0.39 MtCO₂e annually in Kayambi.


4. Carbon prices: market vs. social


  • UK voluntary market: Prices for Peatland Code units average £24–£27/tCO₂e (US$30–35/t) (Woodland Carbon Code, 2024). For Kayambi, this translates into US$9–13 million annually.

  • Local Sierra|ANDES benchmark: US$7.77/t, yielding only US$2–3 million/year.

  • Social cost of carbon (SCC, US EPA): ~US$190/tCO₂e (2023). At this value, Kayambi’s avoided emissions are worth US$57–73 million/year (EPA, 2023).

The disparity is stark: market prices do not cover full costs or social damages. To be equitable, Kayambi requires recognition not only of avoided CO₂, but also of its co-benefits in water security and child nutrition.


5. Stacking finance: a Scottish-Andean model


To reach a viable scale of ≥US$40 million annually —equivalent to US$200–250 million over five years— Sierra|ANDES proposes a stacked finance approach:

  1. Carbon credits (UK VCM): US$9–13 M/year at £25–27/t.

  2. Climate-social payments (SCC partial): US$15–20 M/year, recognising wider externalities.

  3. Payments for water services: building on Quito’s FONAG trust (currently ~US$2.5 M/year) to scale towards US$8–12 M/year (FONAG, 2022).

  4. Impact bonds on child stunting (DCI): linking restoration with reductions in chronic undernutrition in Kayambi children: US$5–8 M/year.

This blended model mirrors Scotland’s experience —where peatland restoration is justified not only by carbon, but also by water regulation, biodiversity, and rural livelihoods.


6. Justice and shared narrative


Scotland has rightly recognised its peatlands as a national climate debt and invested accordingly. Ecuador deserves the same fairness.

The Highland Clearances displaced clans and fragmented communities, just as today narco-violence and fiscal crisis undermine Kayambi families. Restoration in both cases is not simply technical: it is a matter of justice and identity.

A Highlands–Andes covenant would:

  • Transfer Scottish protocols and MRV capacity to Sierra|ANDES.

  • Integrate Kayambi into UK carbon markets at fair prices.

  • Carry to the world a joint story of sacred mountains and sacred bogs, of carbon, water, and children.


7. Conclusion


If Scotland can commit £250 million to restore its peatlands, the world can support Ecuador in doing the same. Kayambi and the Highlands are not distant; they are mirror landscapes in a shared struggle against climate change and social erosion.

Investing in Kayambi means not only safeguarding 12–63 MtCO₂e at risk, but also ensuring clean water for Quito and nutrition for indigenous children. It is time to place the Andes beside the Highlands in the global climate conscience.


References

  • EPA. (2023). Social Cost of Carbon for Regulatory Impact Analysis. United States Environmental Protection Agency.

  • Glenk, K., McBride, A., Urban, D., et al. (2025). Understanding peatland restoration costs and contractor capacity. DOI:10.7488/era/5570.

  • Hribljan, J. A., Suárez, E., Heckman, K. A., Lilleskov, E. A., & Chimner, R. A. (2016). Peatland carbon stocks and accumulation rates in the Ecuadorian páramo. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 24(2), 113–127.

  • NatureScot. (2025). Bogging Brilliant: The power of peatland restoration. Scottish Government.

  • SEFARI. (2020). The costs of peatland restoration — March 2021 update. Scotland’s Rural College.

  • Woodland Carbon Code. (2024). Market data on Peatland and Woodland Carbon Units. Forestry Commission UK.


 
 
 
bottom of page